,n\^ 



EDUCATION 

I21 WHat Does it Find a Basis and 
^Kplanation? 



A THEISI^ ^ 



BY rwlOSIAH HALL. 



!n Part Requirement for the Degree Ph. M. In the University 
ofChicego. August, 1901. 



COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY MOSIAH HALL. 



I THE Library OF 

I CONGRESS, 

I T'A.-, Copies Received 

I ^PH 30 1903 

(Copyrignt tnuy 
cuss CL-XXc. No 
i_ COPY b 



^ 



EIDUCAXION 

IN WHAT DOES IT FIND A BASIS AND EXPLANATION? 



A THEISIS 

BY MOSIAH HAI_L- 

In Part Requirement for the Degree Ph. M. In the University 
of Chicago. August, 1901. 



/ 



INTRODUCTION. 



Education is g-aining- alarg-er place in public conscious- 
ness from day to day, and its importance both to the indi- 
vidual and to the state is nowg-enerally conceded. Naturally 
there results a larg-e and rapidly increasing- literature on 
the subject, and it would be thoug-ht that any one might 
easily discover a definite idea of what education is and of 
the process to be followed in reaching- the educational end; 
but an examination of the literature on education results in 
confusion, if not in disappointment. The inquirer finds near- 
ly as many answers to his question as there are authors con- 
sulted. On one hand the definition of education is so g"en- 
eral and indefinite as to poj^sess little real value, or on the 
other hand, so particular and narrow that much is excluded 
which belongs to the subject. One author contends that 
education should be practical — that nothing- is valuable 
which does not prepare for the duties of life. Another in- 
sists that this practical view is utilitarian and selfish, and 
that the practical concerns of life are unimportant compared 



with the development of character. Then it is asserted 
that education is the imparting- of knowleg-e, and that 
facts are the most important thing's in the world. Other 
statements are found to the effect, that education is the in- 
fluence of a mature mind over a mind not matured; that it 
is the development of power; that its purpose is to produce 
a g-ood citizen; that the end of education is happiness; that 
its purpose is full and harmonious development; that it 
should aim at the perfection of the individual; that it 
should prepare for complete living-; that it should occupy 
itself with humanistic culture; that it should make scien- 
tific knowledge its centre; and, finally, that education is 
the result of social influences upon the individual. 

This preliminary statement serves to introduce and to 
justify the selection of our subject. 



I. 

A large number of statements will nov/ be selected and 
examined for the purpose of discovering their adequacy' or 
inadequacy as definitions of education. 

(a). The friinary vieaninsc of the word education \^ 
found in the Latin word educatio from which the word edu- 
cation is derived. Educatio is in turn derived from the 
word ediico which is made up of the two words, c^ out, and 
duco^ I lead. The usual dictionary definition, signifying- a 
leading- or drawing- forth of the faculties of the child 
throug-h instruction and discipline and the imparting- of 
knowledge, is, therefore, consistent with the primary mean- 
ing- of the word. If conlined to this meaning, education 
must be restricted to that which is done to the child from 
the outside, and the modern conception that self-activity is 
a factor in education must be abandoned. But the question 
arises. Must the original meaning of the word be accepted 
as adequate at the present time? The classical Latin 
writers themselves did not use the term in accordance with 
its strict meaning. It was used generally in early times 



to sig"nif J the germinating" of plants, or the training- of ani- 
mals. Later it was extended to the care or training- of 
young- children. Cicero represents the earth as the educa- 
tor and nourisher of all things, and uses ^<^/^r(^//fi> sometimes 
to sig-nify the training- of animals to labor, while at other 
times, he uses it in a modern sense. Tacitus uses educare 
to sig-nify the nursing- of infancy, and educatio^ sometimes 
as training-, and at other times, as the synonj-m of tutor. 
Quintilian uses ediicatio in the sense of our preparatory 
education, and institution as equivalent to our academic edu- 
cation. Since his time the word education has been vari- 
ousl}^ interpreted, and its meaning- greatly enlarged. Pos- 
sibly at no time has it been used in its strict, original 
meaning. 

x\ word is, ho^vever, but a symbol of thought, and 
vvhile the symbol remains the same, the thought may re- 
ceive .additions from age to age, and thus outgrow the or- 
iginal meaning. For example, contrast the rich content of 
the words hoine^ cotintry, and God with their original re- 
stricted meanings. That the word education has changed 
in content is evident. The primary meaning of the word 
is, theretore, inadequate to explain the present meaning of 
the term. 

(b). Practical Education, according to its advocates, 
may be said to consist in a training and preparation for the 
duties and vocations of life. The popularity of this idea 
may be seen in the growing demand for manual training 
and for technical schools. The majority of parents de- 
mand that the schools shall give better preparation for the 
business of life, and much indignation is expressed for 
what they consider fads, notions, formal discipline, and 
"culture for culture's sake." 

This practical view of education is well expressed by 
David Kay, in Education and Educators^ page 34: *'The 
object of education, then, is to train and cultivate for what 
is the end or business of life — for the right performance of 
the various duties and obligations v/hich the individual 
may be called' upon to discharge, and an educated man is 



one who is fully fitted and qualified for the due perform- 
ance of such duties and oblig-ations." 

The poet Milton expressed nearly the same thought in 
this: 

•'I call a complete and generous education that which 
fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and mag-nanimously, 
all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war." 
— Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics, page 16. 

*'To say we should teach what ought to be practical 
in after life conveys a complete idea of education." — C. 
Durgin. 

These statements express the popular idea of practical 
education. If this idea were carried to its logical conclu- 
sion, education would mean an exclusive training for the 
vocations of life; and technical and manual training schools 
would largely supplant the common school as now consti- 
tuted. Probably none of the authors quoted would favor 
going that far,* 

Now this practical idea of education seems to rest on 
the assumption that education is purelj^ for physical wel- 
fare, and that the school is the only educator. But a large 
body of educators, if asked for the leading idea in educa- 
tion, would answer: "The aim of all education is ethical, 
it has in view^ Wisdom and Virtue; and mere knowledge, 
nay, even discipline of mind, are to be regarded as taking 
their true value from their power of contributing to the 
main purpose — the wise and capable conduct of life." — 
Laurie, Addresses on Educational Subjects, page 62. 

The value of practical education and its necessity in 
the schools of to-day must be admitted; but this admission 
does not imply that it is the most important part of educa- 
tion, or that it is adequate to convey all that is meant by 
the term. Education means more than a preparation for 
practical duties. Its concern, as Laurie says, is rather 
with the man than with the workman. Yet the workman 



* In usitigr qaotations in this paper, we do not commit any author to the impli- 
cations we make and the conclusions we draw, but our criticism is of the particu- 
lar conception of education which the quotations help to define. 



must not be forg-otten, nor must the practical affairs of life 
be neg-lected. The schools will be far more effective in all 
respects when proper attention is g-iven to the training- of 
the hand and eye, and to all forms of expression. But one 
part or phase of education must not be taken for the whole. 
The practical view of education must, therefore, be con- 
sidered incomplete. 

(c). That education consists in the imparting of knowl- 
edge is a belief that once widely prevailed, and one which, 
at the present time, has many supporters among- those who 
have not studied psycholog-y. Authors, too, of considerable 
note are found who have favored this view. 

"If knowledg-e is power, power is knowledg-e * * 
in this sense, then, all education may be said to be the com- 
munication of knowledg-e." — Kay, Ed. andEdu., pag-e 148. 

One g-reat end of education is to communicate to the 
pupil that sort of knowledge which is most likel^^ to be use- 
ful to him in the sphere of life to which Providence has as- 
sig-ned him." — Tate, Man. of Ped., pag-e 16. 

"Education is a hig-h word; it is the preparation for 
knowledg-e, and it is the imparting- of knowledg-e in propor- 
tion to that preparation." — J. H. Newman. 

Probably the strong-est statement that can be found 
favoring- knowledg-e as the great purpose of education is 
in Ward's article on Education: 

•'Success in life ultimately depends upon knowledge. 
* * * Discipline is secured by the org-anized 
reception of the most important knowledge. * * 
The education of knowledge implies discipline, produces 
character, and involves morality. These ends may there- 
fore be safely neglected. They cannot fail to follow from 
the adoption of the means. * * Education may 
therefore be defined as a system for extending to all the 
members of society such of the extant knowledge of the 
world as may be deemed most important. The object is to 
store the mind with a carefully organized assortment of 
the most useful and important known truths." — Ch. 14, 
Dynamical Sociology, Vol. 1. 



The idea of education conveyed by the above appears 
to be that knowledg-e is something- that exists outside of 
the mind in the form of facts which are to be selected and 
"carefully organized," and by some unexplained process 
transferred into the mind of the learner. 

In this view, the activity of the individual is not con- 
sidered. The principal thing is to possess, like an empty 
keg, capacity to be filled. If knowledge is received, nothing 
else need be sought. This viev/ of education is responsi- 
ble for more serious errors in the aim and method of the 
schools than all other wrong conceptions combined. It 
makes the child a passive recipient to whom anything or 
everything may be communicated, and thus fosters the 
error and formalism that still characterize so many schools. 
Knowlege, truly, is of great importance, but it is not lying 
around waiting- to be transferred into anyone's mind. 

Knowledge is the experience acquired b}^ the mind in 
dealing with its environment, and it consists essentially in 
the discovery of relations. First, there is the relation be- 
tween the mind and its object; and second, certain relations 
are found in the object itself and between it and other ob- 
jects. A thing at first is merely the use it has for activity. 
Therefore an object or a fact has no meaning, and practi- 
cally no existence apart from the mind that conceives it. 

All that can be done from the outside is to furnish the 
appropriate conditions for mental action. The environ- 
ment supplies the means, and to a large extent determines 
the direction of activity, but the fundamental factor in the 
whole process of education is the activity of the mind, and 
knowledge comes as a result of the interaction of activity 
and environment. Knowledge has no existence outside of 
the mind. Education, therefore, conceived of as the im- 
parting of knowledge, is inadequate and highly misleading. 

(d). The injltience which a mature mind exercises over 
an imniaUi7'e mind is, by many, considered the function of 
education. 

This influence may be extended to include the whole 
physical envi7-onment ^^3. means; or the physical environ- 



meiit may be neg^lected, and the social environment consid- 
ered the most important instrument. The following- state- 
ments express these views: 

"Education is that intentional and systematic course 
of operations by adult persons upon the young- which is de- 
signed to raise the latter to whatever degree of individual 
excellence thev are capable of by nature."— C. Schmidt, 
Ed. & Edu., p." 13. 

"Education includes all those influences and disciplines 
by which the faculties of man are unfolded and perfected." 
•—A. B. Alcot 

"Education is the process by which one mind forms 
another mind, and one heart another heart." — Jules Simon. 

Education in the last analysis is the influence of one 
person upon another." — H, Scudder. 

"Ph3^sical influences, however, always abiding and al- 
ways the same, act slowly thoug-h surely, and hence their 
effects are not so great or marked in individuals, or in a 
brief space, as on races or for a length of time. Social in- 
fluences, again, are more powerful and manifest in the in- 
dividual than in the race. The individual character is to a 
much greater extent formed by social than by physical cir- 
cumstances, by the influences of parents, friends, compan- 
ions, laws, governments, literature, etc." — D. Kay, Ed. & 
Edu., p. 3%. 

"The idea of education may be more or less compre- 
hensive. We use it in the widest sense when we speak of 
the education of the race towards self-conscious freedom. 
In this the world spirit is teacher. In a more restricted 
sense, we mean by education the shaping of the individual's 
life by the laws of nature, the rhythm of national customs, 
and the might of destiny; since in these each one finds lim- 
its set to his arbitrary will. These mould him into a man 
often without his knowledge. * * * In the narrowest 
sense, which, however, is the usual one, we mean by educa- 
tion the influence which one individual exerts on another 
in order to develop the latter in some conscious and method- 
ical way * * * ".— Rosenkranz's Phil, of Edu., p. 21-2. 



10 

These statements are impressive, and contain a large ele- 
ment of truth. At first sight they might be considered ade- 
quate, but investigation discovers that at least one import- 
ant factor is wanting. They assume the capability of the 
object acted upon to receive and appropriate the influences 
mentioned, but they do not recognize the fundamental im- 
portance of the self-active principle itself. Mind is not ly- 
ing around passively to receive v^hat influences may be pre- 
sented to it, but it is already active, its essential nature is 
prospective. Rosenkranz emphasizes this fact: 

"The nature of education is determined by the nature 
of mind in that it can develop what it is in itself only by its 
own activity. Mind is in itself free; but if it does actualize 
this possibility, it is in no true sense free, either for itself 
or for another. Education is the influencing of man by 
man, and it has for its end to lead him to actualize himself 
through his own efforts." — Phil. ofKdu., p. 19. 

The inadequacy, therefore, of the injitience school of 
education is evident. 

(e). The ethical ideal asserts that the development of 
character is the chief concern of education. This theory 
condemns that education which is merely practical or scien- 
tific. Conduct is more important than skill, and ideals, 
more valuable than facts. Neither knowledge, nor wealth, 
nor external act is good in itself, but only when related to 
a good character. 

Ideals shine by their own splendor and point the road 
that effort must travel, but ideas, like the moon, are dulj 
and lifeless, and brighten only in a borrowed light. 

"To implant vigorous aims and incentives in children 
is the great privilege of the teacher." — McMurry's General 
Method, p. 67. 

''The formation o/ character, as shown in a strong 
moral will, is the highest aim of education." — McMurry, 

p. 205. 

"The right way is the way of the humanities, and the 
way of the humanities is paved with literature, history, eth- 
ics, religion, art — all that is humanizing, all that makes a 



11 

citizen a man and not merely a workman. In short, the edu- 
cation of the schools must be liberal and humanizing-, and 
prepare for the g-eneral conduct and rational enjoyment of 
life, not for any specific department of labor." — Laurie's 
Addresses on Ed. Sub., p. 131. 

"Life is simple; it is choosing- the ideal worth of the 
soul ag-ainst every other interest that may clamor for recog-- 
nition. The choice is to be made between two things only; 
the present, real self, and the future, ideal self. * * * 
The real and true life of the soul can be found only by los- 
ing- the realized self. * 'i^ * Spiritual requirements are 
supreme, and, when met, the lower physical good is secured 
in the process, and more effectively than by direct effort. 
* * * The teacher who levels his work to the merely 
practical will miss that and all else; but the teacher who 
seeks the kingdom of heaven will have all things else ad- 
ded."— Tompkins' Phil, of Teaching, pp. 48-71. 

In this country, the Herbartians have done much to 
popularize the ethical ideal, and to them great credit is due 
for elevating the ideals of the school; but that Herbart is a 
safe authority upon which to found an educational system 
may be doubted. 

According to Compayre's Hist, of Ped., p. 537, Herbart 
considers that "psychology is only a mechanism of the 
mind, and, by means of mathematical formulae, calculations 
may be applied to measure the force of ideas," Herbart 
does not believe the mind possesses any innate power, but 
that the ideas that come into the mind are themselves the 
actors, hence self-activity is not mentioned nor needed in 
his system. The mind is added to by enlarging the circle 
or knowledge by a kind of accretive process instead of de- 
veloping through its own activity. This psychology has 
been abandoned, and it is evident that any system of edu- 
cation founded upon an unsound psychology is subject to 
suspicion. Herbart says, "The one, the whole work of 
education may be summed up in the conception — Morality." 
The aim is to awaken "a many-sided interest." He expands 
morality into "the idea of inner freedom, the idea of per- 
fection, of good will, of rights and of equity." Prof, Rein 



12 

of Jena, a disting-uished Herbartiati, and a leading- advo- 
cate of the culture or humanistic school of education, g-ives 
this definition: '-The ethical culture of the will must be 
reg-arded as the highest purpose of education." — Rein's 
Ped., p. 31. But, conceding- everything- to morality con- 
sistent with its meaning, and granting- the urgent need at 
present for emphasizing moral training and the develop- 
ment of character, the fact remains that they are but im- 
portant phases of the great subject of education and that 
there are other related phases claiming equal attention. 

(f). ''IVie formation of a moral-rcli^iotis character is 
the chief aim^^ of education. — Rein's Ped., p. 41. 

Religion, then, may, urge its claim for a place in edu- 
cation. It expects man to subordinate all other objects and 
purposes of life to his relationship with the Divine. There 
must be "a constant new birth out of the grave of the past 
into the life of a more beautiful future." Everything per- 
taining to this world is finite and transitory, and man must 
free himself from the control of these external objects be- 
fore he can enjoy true existence. Religion g-ives to man 
his most worthy ideals and highest conceptions of life. It 
springs largely from the feeling phase of consciousness 
which gives that warmth and sympathy essential to right 
conduct and to the development of taith. While religious 
faith must be guided by judgment, yet its convictions far 
outrun the deductions of reason. ''For we walk by faith, 
not by sight."— II Cor., 5:7. 

Faith assures us of a reality of that which we do not 
know. It is allied to hope, and, "Hope springs eternal in 
the human breast." No array of facts, and no results of 
experience can prevent the soul from hoping. Clip the 
wings of hope, and human endeavor ceases to struggle and 
falls helpless to the ground. Knowledge is fettered to the 
earth, but faith breaks the net of logic and flies into 
heaven. Though the conviction of faith is less strong 
than that of knowledge, faith has more courage, and it 
more often incites to action. Knowledge has had its thou- 
sand martyrs; religion, its ten thousand. 



13 

Without the ideals which relig-ion has furnished, the 
world could not have been humanized, and the present civ- 
ilization would have been impossible. Religion has also 
been closely related to the origin and development of the 
school; it is a factor, therefore, which cannot be excluded 
from an adequate conception of education. 

(g-)- That the scientific theory^ or the ^''doctrine of na- 
tin'Cy'^ should furnish the basis of education is held by many 
educators. According to this, the first duty of man is to 
understand nature and her laws and make them ready ser- 
vants in conquering his environment. This theory asserts 
that the progress of the race has been due largely to the 
practical activities resulting from science and invention, 
and that the advancement made in education has been pos- 
sible because of this theory. 

A safeguard is here offered against the danger of over- 
developing the feeling and imaginative phases of conscious- 
ness. The cool, sober judgment arising from scientific study 
is the only rock of security when the winds of feeling blow 
and the sea of passion runs high. 

Comenius, the father of modern education, says that 
the laws of scientific induction must become the laws 
of education; that there is to be no more setting out 
with abstract principles imposed by authority, but facts 
are to be gathered by observation and verified by experi- 
ment and the order of nature faithfully followed. ''In the 
place of dead books, why should we not open the living 
book of nature?" * * * We must not offer to the young 
the shadow of things, but the things themselves." — Com- 
payre's History of Ped., p. 133. 

Kraepelin contributes the following: "Instruction 
should open up to a pupil an understanding of the present, 
and thereby furnish a basis for a frank and many-sided 
philosophy of life, resting upon reality. But to the pres- 
ent belongs the world outside of us. * * The necessity 
of assuming a relation to our environment is unavoidable, 
and this can only be done by acquainting ourselves with 
the surrounding- world in every direction." — McMurry's 
Gen. Method., p. 43. 



14 

Compayre adds this strong statement: "Eng-lish phi- 
losophy with its experimental and practical character, and 
with its positive and utilitarian tendencies, was naturally 
called to exercise a great influence on pedagogy.^ There 
are more truths to gather from the thinkers who, in differ- 
ent degrees, have preserved a taste for prudent observation 
and careful experiments, than from the German idealists, 
enamored of hypotheses and systematic constructions/' — 
History of Ped., p. 538. 

Jackman says: "The life, health, and happiness of the 
individual are dependent upon his knowledge of the things 
about him, and upon the understanding that he has of their 
relation to each other and to himself." 

Spencer remarks: "So far from science being irrelig- 
ious, as many think, it is the neglect of science that is ir- 
religious — it is the refusal to study the surrounding crea- 
tion that is irreligious. * * True science is religious, too, 
inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an im- 
plicit faith in, those uniform laws which underlie all things. 
* * He sees that the laws to which we must submit are 
not only inexorable, but beneficient. He sees that in virtue 
of these laws the process of things is ever towards a greater 
perfection and a higher happiness. * * Science alone 
can give us true conceptions of ourselves and our relation 
to the mysteries of existence. * "^ Necessary and eternal 
as are its truths, all science concerns all mankind for all 
time." — Education, pp. 64-68. 

The scientific theory offers an argument both reason- 
able and convincing. That it must have a place in a com- 
plete system of education is self-evident; but it is equally 
evident from our discussion that this theory does not give 
an adequate conception of education, since there are other 
phases claiming equal validity. 

(h). T/ie ifidiyidualistic ideal of education^ under one 
form or another, has always been a favorite. It has to-day, 
undoubtedly, more believers than any other theory. The 
central thought involved in the various statements of this 
conception, is some good or end to be reached within 
the individual himself. He is considered the unit of intrin- 
sic value. From him spring all the activities of life, and 



15 

all the great moving- forces that occasion progress. He in- 
itiates, invents, uses, and governs. He decides largely 
what influences from the outside shall be received and as- 
similated, and he reads meaning- and system into the v^hole 
v^orld of objects. Governments are made by him, and they 
derive their just powers from him. The state, or society, 
is composed of an ag-g-regate of free individuals like him- 
self. The world and the fulness thereof are made for him, 
and he is "monarch of all he surveys." 

Three forms of the individualistic theory will be exam- 
ined. (1) Coming- down from the Greeks, revived by 
Rousseau, and definitely formulated by Kant and Pestaloz- 
zi, is the harmony theory, which is so popular with educa- 
tors. (2) Naturally related to this is the happiness theo- 
ry^ so warmly defended by Mill and the utilitarians, and 
declared by them to be the object of education and of life. 
(3) Closely related to these is perfection^ considered as 
the ultimate end and object of life. 

The following- are typical statements of this ideal: 

"The object of education is the full and harmonious 
development of all the powers." — Pestalozzi. 

"We would define education, then, as the drawing- out 
or forth of the various faculties of man, each to the hig-hest 
state of perfection of which it is capable, and at the same 
time in perfect harmony with all the rest." — Kay, Ed. and 
Edu., p. 15. 

"It is manifest that nothing- can be of consequence to 
mankind or any creature but happiness."— Bishop Butler. 

"The end of education is to render the individual as 
much as possible an instrument of happiness, first to him- 
self and next to others." — Mill. 

"To develop in the individual all the perfection of 
which he is capable is the great object of education "-Kant. 

"The purpose of education is to give to the body and 
to the soul all of the beauty and all of the perfection of 
which they are capable." — Plato. 

* 'Absolute perfection is a point unattainable, but it is 



16 

a point to which our measures must always he tending-, 
and we must estimate their wisdom by our approach to it." 
— Arch. Whateley. 

*'Human perfection and human happiness coincide and 
constitute one end. By perfection is meant the full and 
harmonious development of all the faculties, corporal, and 
mental, intellectual and moral "^^ * by happiness the 
complement of all the pleasures of which we are suscept- 
ible."— «ir Wm. Hamilton. 

The Athenian Greeks were the first to formulate the 
individualistic ideal of education. The}^ developed a free, 
joyful personality, and g-ave to the world ideals of life which 
are still worthy of emulation. 

Aristotle, speaking- for the Greeks, said, "The aim of 
life is living- happily and beautifully." Above all other 
people, the Greeks truly lived. The idea of proportion, 
''nothing- in excess" dominated their life from the first, and 
with them, a rational life meant a life of which all of the 
parts, internal and external, stood to each other in just pro- 
portion. The realization of this ideal, they called worth. 
The individual was all-important, and his perfection the 
g-reat end of education and life. The Spartans on the other 
hand subordinated the individual to the state, attempted to 
manufacture citizens after a certain pattern, and tried to 
found a static state — one which would be incapable of pro- 
g-ress. They, therefore, g-ave little of value to the world ex- 
cept a warning ag-ainst a certain kind of socialism; but the 
Athenian ideal was destined to g-row and produce marvel- 
ous results. 

Christianity reaffirmed the dig-nity of the individual by 
asserting that the soul of one person is as valuable as an- 
other's in the sight of God, and that man's worthiness is to 
be judged by his individual works. Compayre says, ''The 
doctrine of Christ was at first a reaction of free will and of 
personal dignity against the despotism of the state. A full 
half of man henceforth escaped the action of the state. 
That as a citizen of a republic, he ought to give his life for 
it, but that in respect of his soul, he was free and owed al- 



17 

legiance only to God." — Hist, of Ped., p. 61. "Render there- 
fore unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God 
the thing-sthat are God's.'-Matthew 22:21. Henceforth edu- 
cation is to be not merely a training- of citizens for the service 
of the state, but a disinterested development "of the indi- 
vidual for his own sake." The subsequent development of 
this ideal may be traced in every step of human progress 
and civilization. 

As the consciousness of individul worth became aroused, 
it threw off outward restraint, denied the "divine rig-ht of 
kings," and even questioned the rig-ht of the church to 
dominate belief. Throug-h Luther and his followers, it 
found expression in the Reformation; from the page of 
Rousseau, it spoke in the French Revolution; aroused in 
the American patriots, it found voice in the Declaration of 
Independence, and established democracy in the land. 
Science and invention are larg-ely its products, and freedom 
and eqality its children. 

To praise is easier than to criticise the individualistic 
conception of education, for it is characteristic of the spirit 
of our times, and its appeal is almost irresistible. But 
granting- the profound importance of this ideal, its adequacy 
must not be admitted too hastily. 

It assumes that the individual is complete in himself, 
and that his development constitutes the whole of educa- 
cation. In this the individual is apt to think that his own 
opinion is supreme, and to forget that this leads to selfish- 
ness and arrogance. Division of interests, antagonism, 
wasteful competition, and struggling factions are some of 
the results of this belief. Society is considered something 
set over against the individual, with laws and regulations 
often opposed to his best interests. The truth, however, 
is that the individual is of small account when considered 
separate from society. He cannot stand alone. A babe is 
no more dependent upon its mother's breast for sustenance, 
than is the individual upon society. Isolation for him 
means death. 

One serious defect of the theory is that it states the 



18 

whole of education in terms of the end, and ignores the 
means bj which the end is attained. Granting every- 
thing- that can be rightly claimed for the subjective factor 
and its ideal end, it must be remembered that the objective 
factors — the social and physical environment — must be con- 
sidered. The end and means cannot be separated without 
having in each case a mere abstration. 

The inadequacy of the haymony theory is evident, when 
we note that its acceptance would fasten upon us a belief 
in the "faculty pss'chology" the error of which, briefly 
stated, is in assuming that the child has as dormant facul- 
ties all the powers of memory, imagination, reason, etc. 
which by introspection are found in adult consciousness, 
and that these "naked possibilities" are real things "iden- 
tical with their own realization," and, therefore, capable of 
being developed. It has never occurred to believers in this 
theory that the powers of adult consciousness instead of ex- 
isting at the outset begin with the child's instincts and 
tendencies to act, and arise as a result of a long series of 
changes, each of which widens the horizon of activit}^ and 
gives a point of departure for more complex changes and 
more widely related activities. 

Modern psychology does not believe that general pow- 
ers of memory, imagination, reason, etc., exist, or can be 
developed, but that ability to remember and reason in any 
subject is developed by actually studying and reasoning upon 
that subject. The existence, therefore, of general faculties 
which can be harmoniously developed is a theory which has 
been abandoned by philosophers and leading educators. 

With regard to happiness as the end, Mill himself ad- 
mits that it must not be sought directly. "The only chance 
is to treat, not happiness, but some end external to it as 
the purpose of life." And if an3^one got happiness and per- 
fection, what would they be, and what would he do with 
them? Would they not be mere inert, static conditions 
without an end or purpose; and, in consequence, would not 
activity cease and consciousness disappear? 

After all, happiness is not the completion of an end, 



19 

nor does it come as the mere pursuit of an end, but it con- 
sists in "the process of becoming- satisfied," or, in other 
v/ords, in the progressive attainment of some good — each 
step in the series being the point of departure for contin- 
ued activity. Action ceases with the attainment of the 
end, ar.d the feelings connected with the process vanish, 
hence pleasure also disappears. While the necessity for 
having a worthy ideal is evident, happiness does not fur- 
nish a satisfactory one. And with respect to perfection, be- 
sides the difficulty of forming an adequate idea of what it 
means, the fact remains that without a content, it is an 
abstraction of little value to education. To man, at least, 
perfection must always remain a relative conception. 

(i). The social-organic theory of ediicatioit )i3.^ arisen 
because of the inadequacy of the individualistic ideal to 
meet the requirements of education. Philosophers and the 
more thoughtful educators, alone, are familiar with this 
theory. The average teacher is subject to strong, conserv- 
ative influences which keep him in well-beaten paths, and 
cause him to look with suspicion upon new and untried 
theories. But that this ideal is present in educational 
thought may be seen from the following: 

*'It is to this progress of the race towards a higher and 
more perfect state of development that the term education 
in its widest sense is applied. The entire human race is re- 
garded as a unit, a single individual, who, from the earli- 
est times to the present has been in a state of progress, his 
powers gradually improving, his knowledge gradually ex- 
tending, and who is destined to reach a much higher and 
more perfect state in the future." — D. Kay, E. andE., p. 5. 

'•What a man is depends in a great measure upon the 
influences that are working upon him in the family, in the 
society, and in the party to which he belongs." — H. W. 
Beecher. 

"Education sets before itself the task of relating the 
individual intrinsically to the social tradition so that he 
may become an organic part of society." — Vincent, The 
Social Mind and. Ed., p. VIII. 



20 

"There is no individual man for ethics, for psychology, 
for log-ic, for sociolog-y, except by abstraction — that is if by 
individual man we mean a being- not influenced by social 
forces — nor are there any feelings, thoughts, or volitions in 
any man which are independent of such forces." — Prof. 
Tufts, Amer. Jor. Soc, Jan. 1896. 

"Pedagogy ought to be defined as the art ot adapting 
new generations to those conditions of life which are the 
most intrinsic and fruitful for the individual and the spe- 
cies." — Guyan in Vincent, p. 93. 

"Education is the preparation of the individual for re- 
ciprocal union with society, the preparation of the individ- 
ual so that he can help his tellow-men, and in return re- 
ceive and appropriate their help." — Com. W. T. Harris, 
Put. Ped., pp. 14 and 15. 

The quotations above show clearly the importance of 
the social side of education, but they do not indicate clear- 
ly what the relation of the individual is in this theory, and 
about all that is done is to contrast society with the indi- 
vidual, and thus bring to light the antithesis between the 
two. There seems no good reason, therefore, to prefer this 
to the individualistic theory. We have seen that the indi- 
vidual is a fundamental factor in education, and it appears 
from the above that society is scarcely less important; 
hence we must include both of these factors in an adequate 
conception of education. We believe the organic theory of 
society provides the necessary union. This theory conceives 
society as essentially an organism, in which every member 
is free from every other and from the w^hole, so far as 
the particular function is concerned which it carries on; 
yet each part is related structurally and vitally to 
every other and to the whole so that it would lose 
its function and could not exist as such if separated. 
The function of the eye is to see, but it sees for the good of 
the whole body as well as itself, and if it were separated, 
it would lose its function and meaning, and become an in- 
ert, perishing mass of matter. So the individual is intrins- 
ically related to society. One exists for and conditions 
the other. Neither could exist, or have any meaning or 



21 

purpose without the other. According- to McKenzie's So- 
cial Phil., p. 148, "An org"anism may be defined as a whole 
whose parts are intrinsically related to it, which develops 
from within, and has reference to an end which is involved 
in its own nature." Society is such an organism. 

"The rational nature of the beings who compose it is 
entirely dependent for its being- and continuance on the 
existence of certain social relations. Its unfolding- and 
development come from within. It has reference to an end 
which is involved in its own nature; for the end of society is 
to preserve the life, and to secure the highest life, more- 
over, consisting not in the attainment of anything exter- 
nal either to the individuals or to society, but the perfect 
realization of their own rational nature, which can be at- 
tained only in perfect social life." — p. 238. 

The whole maybe considered as a system of "relative- 
ly independent parts" in which the freedom of each part is 
secured in and through the system, but could not exist 
apart from the system. 

*'Just as our wills are free although they are the ex- 
pressions of our character, so the individual has an inde- 
pendent life, although he is the expression of his society." 
—p. 239-240. 

A wide-reaching truth is expressed in this organic 
conception. It more nearly furnishes a satisfactory basis 
for education than any other theory examined. In it 
the individual and society are interdependent, one presup- 
posing and conditioning the other; therefore the antithesis 
existing between the two, when they are isolated, is re- 
moved by this theory. A strong statement of this intimate 
union and relationship is in the following-: 

"Just as the successive states of consciousness in the 
individual form a coherent unity with which self or per- 
sonality is associated, so society gains unity and self-con- 
sciousness from a well-organized and continuous collective 
tradition which therefore constitutes the essential vital 
principle of the social organism." — Vincent's Social Mind 
and Ed., p. 91. 



22 

Prof. A. W. Small in "Demands of Sociology upon 
Pedag-og-y," adds the following: 

"The end of all education is, first, completion of the 
individual: second, implied in the first, adaptation of the 
individual to such co-operation with the society in which 
his lot is cast that he works at his best with the society in 
perfecting- its own type, and, consequently, in creating- con- 
ditions favorable to the development of a more perfect type 
of individual." — p. 1. 

"Sociology in the study of society urges three demands 
upon pedagogy: (1) interdependence, (2) order, or co- 
operation, (3) progress, or continuity. By the first, I mean 
the universal fact that every act or event in human life has 
been made possible or necessary by other acts or events 
connected with other lives both past and present, and that 
it helps to make or mar the lives of others. Beginning 
with the family, and extending to the compass of the race, 
society is a network of interdependencies. By the second, 
I mean the machine-like interplay of actors and action> in 
every minute social group as well as in large societies. 
Wherever men have been associated even in the most tem- 
porary society, the measure of stability in their relations 
has been preserved by an institutional order, as real while 
it lasted as though it were defined by the iron decree of 
Medes and Persians. By the third, progress or continuity, 
I mean the conception of man and events as always work- 
ing out new iadividual conditions and social arrangements, 
the truth, on the one hand, that the roots of the present 
are deep in the past, on the other hand, that the present 
cannot escape responsibility for the future." — p. 26. 

But unquestionably the best statement of the organic 
theory as related to education is by Dr. Dewey in "My 
Pedagogic Creed," pages 1-7: 

"I believe that all education proceeds by the participa- 
tion of the individual in the social consciousness of the race 
* * that the only true education comes through the 
stimulation of the child's powers by the demands of the so- 
cial situation in which he finds himself. Through these 
demands he is stimulated to act as a member of a unity, to 
emerge from his original narrowness of action and feeling, 
and to conceive of himself from the standpoint of the wel- 
fare of the group to which he belongs. Through the re- 
sponses which others make to his own activities he comes 



23 

to know what these mean in social terms. The value which 
they have is reflected back into them. I believe that this 
educational process has two sides — one psychological, and 
one sociolog"ical; and that neither can be subordinated to the 
other or neg-lected without evil results following-. Of these 
two sides, the psychological is the basis. The child's own 
instincts and powers furnish the material and give the 
starting point for all education. * * * Knowledge of 
social conditions, of the present state of civilization, is nec- 
essary in order properly to interpret the child's powers. 
The child has his own instincts and tendencies, but we do 
not know what these mean until we can translate them in- 
to their social equivalents. We must be able to carry them 
back into a social past and see them as the inheritance of 
previous race activities. We must be able to project them 
into the future to see what their outcome and end will be. 
"I believe that the psychological and social sides are 
organically related, and that education cannot be regarded 
as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition of 
one upon the other. In sum, I believe that the individual 
who is to be educated is asocial individual, and that socie- 
ty is an organic union of individuals. If we eliminate the 
social factor from the child we are left only with an ab- 
straction; if we eliminate the individual factor from society, 
we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass. * * The 
school is primarily a social institution." 

The social-organic ideal offers an almost irresistible 
argument in favor of its acceptance as an adequate theory 
of education. It points the direction that educational 
thought must travel. Other theories have been found in- 
adequate, but this contains essential elements of the others 
and avoids many of their errors. In this theory, neither 
the individual nor society is considered the more important 
factor — one cannot be subordinated to the other, because 
both are intrinsic, and each conditions and makes possible 
the other. This theory gives the individual that freedom 
of action, and that povler to invent and to work out his 
ideal so far as they are consistent with his best good, which 
is, at the same time, the best good of society. He must be 
considered the dynamic factor— the factor that initiates, 
that changes existing conditions, and makes progress pos- 
sible. On the other hand, society makes use of and gives 



24 

meaning- to the activity of the individual. It insures him 
the exercise of his freedom, and g-ives value to the g-ood 
V7hich he contributes by exchang-ing- the surplus for some 
other g-ood which he himself could not produce, but, with- 
out which he could not exist. 

Society g-ives meaning- and value to all activity and to 
all of its products. Throug-h it the g-ood contributed by all 
is used for all. This theory recognizes the dependence of 
the members of society upon each other, and teaches that 
the good of each is the g-ood of all. Who could estimate 
the value of this conception if it were g-enerally accepted 
and practiced? If it were put into the school, what a 
chang-e in ideals and method would result! Then the 
activities of the home, the community, and the school 
would be in harmony. Force, formalism, and ferocity 
would disappear, and self-g-overnment, community interest, 
and g-ood-will would take their place. 

Laurie says that a nation puts into its educational 
thoug-ht what is uppermost in its life. No one can deny 
that individualism has reached the limit of its disinteg-rat- 
ing- tendency, and that social questions are forcing- them- 
selves into public consciousness. When a few millionaires 
intoxicated by ambition, can so monopolize the resources 
and industries of the nation as to place the g-reat body of 
people in danger of industrial slavery, it is time that the 
social problems of organization, co-operation, and control 
should receive attention. These problems must be solved, 
and they must be solved soon. 

Since the school must reflect what is uppermost in the 
minds of the people, the teacher may confidently expect 
that the social-organic conception will find its way into the 
school. 

From all that has been said, this conclusion is evident; 

The -popular definitions and explanations of education 
are inadequate^ and are opposed more or less to each other^ 
yet each contains some essential phase or factor of education. 



25 
II. 

In our discussion of the various theories of education, 
we have discovered a number of necessary phases and fac- 
tors; and we must now seek a means of relating- and unify- 
ing them. 

Education has to do primarily with the child, and from 
the nature and needs of the child, therefore, we must de- 
termine what education is and what the means are that 
must be used. From psychology we learn that the child 
inherits from the race certain instincts and tendencies 
which express themselves in some form of activity. This 
spontaneous power of action is the great phenomenon of 
life, and the one fundamental principle upon which all 
growth and development depend. In this activity we have 
the first principle of education. This activity in its very 
nature is expectant, and is seeking to enter into relations 
with some object in order to further its interests. Objects 
of the environment are absolutely necessary to its welfare, 
because they furnish the only means by and through 
which the activity directs itself and acquires meaning and 
value. The activity alone would have no meaning, and the 
object alone would be an abstraction, but the relation entered 
into between the two gives rise to sensation, feeling, and 
consciousness, and makes possible the whole complex of men- 
tal development. Hence the relation between the two is in- 
trinsic — one cannot be considered without the other. Edu- 
cation, then, must have two fundamental principles which 
may be called the subjective and objective. Springing from 
these principles will be discovered the various essential 
phases and factors of education, the relationship of which 
will be seen in the following diagram: 



26 



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27 

Beginning" with the child as the occasion for and the 
object of education, we have first the sub-jective principle 
found in the child's tendency to act; this develops into an 
ever widening- circle of activities, and progresses towards 
the end of education. The various phases that state the 
end are closely related, and express some modified form of 
activity, such as feeling- of pleasure or happiness, or of 
duty or worth. We might summarize the essential factors 
here into an ideal of life. This is really an activity with 
a strong- feeling- side. So we begin with activity and end 
with activity. 

So far, good; but observe in all this, one principle only 
has been considered. We have neglected the objective 
principle, but we have seen that activity without stimula- 
tion or content has no meaning and practically no exist- 
ence. The end of education, therefore, cannot be con- 
sidered without reference to the means. When we remem- 
ber the intrinsic relation between the two, we see the im- 
possibility of separating them. The objective principle 
may be called the determing principle, since the direction 
of activity, its adjustments, points of departure and con- 
tent are largely determined by it. The question is not how 
active is the individual, but what is the content or worth 
of his action. The objective principle furnishes the means 
of education. It consists of two divisions, (a) the social 
environment, and (b) the physical environment. Each is 
subdivided, as may be seen above, into the various factors 
of education which exert an injltience upon the individual. 
As we have seen in Part I, education is somtimes stated in 
terms of but one of these factors; for instance, as a result 
of the influence of one person upon another, the influence 
society exerts on the individual, or the influence of nature 
and her laws. The result of the social and physical envi- 
ronment upon the individual, when interpreted, and organ- 
ically related to the subjective principle, is, in a broad 
sense, knowledge. It is through the world around him that 
the individual enters into relationship with things, and 
learns their meaning and interdependence. The objective 



28 

principle starts with objects of environment, and ends with 
an ever-widening- knowledg-e of the same. But the environ- 
ment does more than furnish the means of knowledg-e. It 
helps to mould character and to furnish the individual with 
ideals. The objective principle, in a certain sense, passes 
over into the subjective, and helps to determine what the 
end shall be; and on the other hand, the subjective princi- 
ple passes over into the objective, and decides what means 
shall influence it. Thus we find ag-ain a mutual depend- 
ence. One has meaning- only as related to the other, and 
the relationship is intrinsic or, we may say, org-anic. 

It is therefore evident that any statement of education 
in terms of one principle, phase, or factor must be inade- 
quate. 

The difficult t-tsk of formulating- a definition that shall 
unite the essential phases and factors of education now con- 
fronts us. We offer the following-: Education is the pro- 
gressive realization of the purpose of life through the or- 
ganic interaction of individual activity and the social and 
physical environment. This definition unites the end and 
the means, and appears to embrace every essential phase 
and factor of education. The end stated as \.\iQ proQ^ressiye 
realization of the purpose of life seems to avoid the objec- 
tions found in the conceptions of education heretofore ex- 
amined. The end cannot be the completion of development 
or activity; if so conceived, activity would have no further 
purpose to g-uide and maintain itself, hence it would cease. 

Change and prog-ress could not characterize a perfect 
state, because it perfect, the state could not prog-ress to 
something- more perfect; neither could it chang-e, for chang-e 
necessitates the idea of alteration or difference; but change 
is one condition of consciousness; therefore, if there were 
no chang-e, there could be no consciousness. These difficul- 
ties are avoided when the good involved in the purpose of 
life is considered relative and as something progressive- 
ly realized. Satisfaction does not come through the final 
reaching of an end but in the process of attaining the end; 
when the end is reached, it is found to be the first step in 



29 

another progressive series. A static, chang-eless, perfect 
state is, therefore, not to be desired, much less to be at- 
tained. The word life in the definition includes both the 
life of the individual and that of society, for the purpose 
of one is the purpose of the other. 

When individual activity and the social and physical 
environment are considered as factors in org-anic interac- 
tion, the unification of all the influences which affect life 
is thereby accomplished, and the error of stating education 
in terms of any one factor is avoided. 

We close this part of our discussion with the evident 
conclusion: A unification of the fri^ici-ples^ phases^ and 
factors of education is necessary to an adequate conception 
of the subject, 

III. 

The question of what this unifying- principle is, in 
which education finds its basis and explanation, remains to 
be answered. 

Science has been termed "a system of fixed relations." 
Any one science concerns itself with '*the study of some 
limited portion of our experience," and with the classifica- 
tion of the facts, and the formulation of the laws there 
found. A science becomes definite just to the extent that 
this systematization has prog-ressed. But education has 
no such body of classified facts or systematized laws of its 
own. As we have seen, education has to do with the life- 
process of the child in its individual and social relations. 
If we inquire what is needed for the child physically, phy- 
siology must answer; if we ask how the child develops men- 
tally, psychology must be consulted; if we are concerned 
with the purpose or end of life and with the ideals set up, 
we must see what ethics and religion have to say; if we ask 
what is the nature of the influence which individuals and 
society exert upon the child, sociology must be heard from; 
if we desire to know what laws of nature and physical ob- 
jects have to do with education, ^^ys/^^/sc/^/^^^ must speak. 
Education, therefore, reaches out in all directions, and no 
single science appears to be peculiarly its own. 



30 

The mind of man being- essentially self-active has a 
purpose in view. From its nature at least two necessities 
arise: (1) a thirst for knowledge — it must ever seek to 
know. To pause is death. (2) the principle of reduction 
— it must seek to find one in many and unity in multiplicity. 
Knowledge consists essentially in the discovery of relations. 
In this pursuit, it recognizes no divisions in its sub-ject 
matter; every part is related to every other part, and the 
whole forms a consistent unity. But Plato says, "The end 
of philosophy is unity." The province of philosophy is "to 
deal with experience as a whole," and to co-ordinate knowl- 
edge. "Philosophy is the science of sciences," and it is the 
science of principles. According to Wundt, "Philosophy 
is the general science whose business it is to unite the gen- 
eral truths furnished by the particular sciences into a con- 
sistent system. Spencer says: "Philosophy is completely 
unified knowledge." 

"It is the business of philosophy to get behind the 
work of the sciences and see their true meaning and rela- 
tions."— Intro. So. Ph., p. 38. 

AVe are therefore led to philosophy as the subject which 
unifies the principles, sciences, and factors concerned in 
education. No one science can furnish this unity, and we 
have seen that no single phase or factor of education is ade- 
quate. Education^ therefore, must find its basis and explana- 
tion in philosophy. 

History and experience demonstrate that undue atten- 
tion to any one side of human endeavor gives abnormal re- 
sults; but education, considered from the standpoint of phi- 
losophy, must consider the whole of life and all of the 
means needed to realize the same. So considered, every 
phase and factor of education will receive proper recogni- 
tion, and will be adjusted to the whole. The proper rela- 
tions will then be maintained between the subjects of study 
and the activities of life. 

The more thoroughly the teacher understands the var- 
ious sciences and subjects of human concern, the better he 
will be prepared for his work; yet he need not be an ency- 



31 

clopedia in order to understand this conception of educa- 
tion, and to g-et superior results from it in actual school 
work. Man must seek the unification of knowledge; and 
he must remember that philosophy is not mere specula- 
tion. Professor Royce says, "Whether we will it or not, 
we all of us do philosophize." — Spirit of Modern Phil.,, p. 2. 
"Am I demanding- a pedagogy which presupposes one 
philosopher as teacher and another as pupil? Certainly, 
every teacher ought to be a philosopher." — Prof. Small, 
Demands of Sociology upon Ped., p. 28. 

^'It is said that philosophy can bake no bread, but that 
she can secure to us God and immortality. This ought to 
be sufficient; but she can bake bread, and must do so or miss 
God and immortality. To secure heaven, she must mix 
with daily affairs of earth." — Tompkins, Phil, of Teach- 
ing, p. XI. Common sense is but another name for phi- 
losophy. 

As the mental horizon enlarges, man sees things in a 
new light, and relations must change in consequence. No 
set, unchangeable plan of education can be laid down, for 
the ideal of to-day changes with the enlarged knowledge 
of to-morrow. 

SUMMARY. 

The -popular definitions and explanations of education 
are inadequate^ and are opposed more or less to each other^ 
yet each contains some essential phase or factor of education, 

A unification of the principles^ phases arid factors of 
education is necessary to an adequate conception of the sub- 
ject. 

Philosophy gives this unifcation and furnishes the basis 
and explanation of education . 

Education is the progressive realization of the purpose 
of life through the organic iyiteraction of individual activity 
and the social and physical environment, 

MosiAH Hali*. 

(Copyright applied for.) 



